Biography
Family Background and Early Life
Lu Shirong was registered as a native of Daming Prefecture. His personal name was Mao and his courtesy name was Shirong. The official histories record very little about his early life, and his year of birth is unknown. According to his biography in the *History of Yuan*, he advanced through bribery during the period when Ahmad Fanakati monopolized power and became Tea Monopoly Transport Commissioner of Jiangxi, but he was later dismissed for an offense. This experience gave him practical knowledge of fiscal administration, while also providing material later used against him by political opponents.
Entry into the Secretariat and Fiscal Reform
After Ahmad Fanakati was assassinated in 1282, the nineteenth year of the Zhiyuan era, many court officials avoided discussing profit and revenue, and no one could resolve the fiscal difficulties facing Kublai Khan. At this point Sangha recommended Lu Shirong to the emperor, saying that he "possessed ability and methods, could rescue the paper-currency system and increase the tax quota, enriching the state above without harming the people below." Kublai summoned Lu, and his answers closely accorded with the emperor's wishes.
On the xinchou day of the eleventh month of 1284, the twenty-first year of Zhiyuan, Kublai Khan summoned officials of the Secretariat to debate Lu Shirong at court over measures to be adopted. Right Grand Councilor Helihuosun and others "held firmly to rectitude and would not yield," but Lu prevailed in the argument. Helihuosun, Right Vice Director Masud Ding, Councillors Zhang Xiongfei and Wendihan were dismissed. Antong was restored as Right Grand Councilor, and Lu Shirong was appointed Right Vice Director. Left Vice Director Shi Shu, Councillors Bulumishi Haiya and Sadimishi, and Secretariat Councillor Baijiang were among those recommended by Lu Shirong.
On the day he assumed office, Lu received an imperial order to rectify the currency system and punish officials who failed to carry out the regulations diligently. The next day he and Antong memorialized the throne that the government should provide food and clothing for elderly, young, sick, and infirm people without support, with the senior officials of each circuit placed in charge. During the following days, he submitted a succession of proposals concerning the bamboo groves of Huaimeng, fishing taxes on rivers and lakes, and military farms in the Xiang–Huai region; many were approved. The court issued orders allowing private trade in gold and silver, abolishing bamboo monopolies in various places, opening rivers and lakes to fishing, and making the government bear postal-station expenses other than the cost of relay horses.
The Secretariat also proposed allocating two million yin of salt to merchants and distributing another one million yin among the circuits to establish Ever-Normal Salt Offices. If merchants raised salt prices, the government would sell at a stable price, both securing the people's salt supply and protecting state revenue. Kublai Khan accepted the proposal.
Government and Political Conflict
Before Lu Shirong had served ten days in the Secretariat, Censor-in-chief Cui Yu memorialized that he was unfit to serve as a grand councillor. The criticism greatly displeased Kublai, and Cui was handed over to judicial officials for questioning and then dismissed. Lu also proposed prohibiting wealthy families in the capital from brewing and selling liquor, with production and sale instead conducted directly by the government.
On the renwu day of the first month of 1285, the twenty-second year of Zhiyuan, Lu Shirong reported in the Fragrant Hall that, beyond the empire's existing annual revenue of 932,600 ding, another three million ding could be obtained without taking anything from ordinary people, simply by curbing the encroachments of powerful families. He asked to discuss the measures face to face with officials of the Censorate and the Bureau of Military Affairs before implementation. Kublai replied, "There is no need for that; simply state your proposals."
Lu then proposed following Han and Tang precedents by establishing fourth-rank supervisory offices to administer the empire's liquor taxes, collecting copper to mint Zhiyuan coins, and producing silk certificates to circulate alongside paper currency. He further proposed establishing Maritime Trade Transport Offices to monopolize overseas commerce; monopolizing ironware and using the proceeds to purchase grain for ever-normal granaries; creating Price-Stabilization Emergency Relief Treasuries to lend to the people; and purchasing textiles to exchange for sheep and horses. Kublai said the first several measures were good and should be implemented quickly, but remarked that the sheep-and-horse proposal had been attempted by his ancestors without success and required further consideration.
Lu Shirong knew that his actions had created widespread resentment and warned Kublai in advance that he feared being falsely accused. The emperor reassured him with the analogy, "Foxes do not love a swift-footed hound, but would its master not love it?" He ordered Grand Councilor Antong to increase Lu's attendants for protection.
Thereafter the Secretariat proposed abolishing the branch Censorates and placing their subordinate Surveillance Offices under the central Censorate. It also proposed establishing branch Bureaus of Military Affairs wherever branch secretariats were located. Kublai recalled that Ahmad Fanakati had once sought to give his son Huxin both provincial authority and military power, a plan that had then been set aside, but now judged the arrangement appropriate. On the next day the Secretariat also proposed raising the Six Ministries to second rank, putting the Surveillance Offices in overall charge of circuit finances, sending criminal matters to the Censorate, and having the ministries report financial affairs to the Secretariat. Kublai ordered the proposal discussed with senior statesmen before implementation.
On the xinyou day of the second month, the Censorate memorialized against abolishing the branch Censorates and against combining surveillance and transport functions, arguing that "if the Surveillance Offices also manage transport, their duty of impeachment will be abandoned." On the following renxu day, the Censorate again memorialized that all court officials considered the plan unacceptable and only Lu Shirong persisted. Kublai asked for Lu's view. Censorate officials replied that Lu merely wished to abolish them, and Kublai said, "Then follow Shirong's proposal."
The Secretariat also proposed establishing a Planning Office, ranked fifth, staffed by men skilled in commerce. When Kublai asked what the office would do, Lu replied that it would "plan matters of money and grain," and the emperor approved it. Lu further proposed re-employing people from Ahmad Fanakati's former staff who were skilled in fiscal administration. Kublai replied, "Use those who can be used." Former Fiscal Commissioner Zhang Sigang, Saduding, Buluheisan, Sun Huan, and others were consequently appointed as salt transport commissioners in Hebei, Shandong, and other circuits.
Impeachment, Imprisonment, and Death
Lu Shirong's fiscal measures harmed the interests of wealthy and powerful families. His extensive reappointment of former fiscal officials and expansion of administrative authority also provoked dissatisfaction among Confucian officials led by Crown Prince Zhenjin. Zhenjin said: "Wealth does not fall from Heaven. How can an annual surplus be obtained? I fear it will be wrung from the blood and fat of the common people. It would not merely harm the people; it would be a great parasite upon the state."
In the third month of 1285, Investigating Censor Chen Tianxiang submitted a memorial impeaching Lu Shirong. He accused Lu of earlier corruption and misconduct and argued that many of his measures after taking office had produced no results. Kublai ordered Antong to assemble officials of the various agencies, senior statesmen, Confucian scholars, and men familiar with popular conditions, and to bring them together with Lu Shirong to Shangdu for confrontation and interrogation.
During the inquiry Lu admitted several errors, including "issuing 200,000 ding of paper money without informing Grand Councilor Antong; arbitrarily raising the Six Ministries to second rank; and, without consulting the Bureau of Military Affairs, transferring 12,000 men from three branch secretariats to Jizhou and assigning Transport Commissioner Chen Rou to command them as a myriarch." Kublai then ordered Lu imprisoned.
On the yiwei day of the eleventh month of the twenty-second year of Zhiyuan, Lu Shirong was executed.